First
recorded
around 1700
B.C. in
China, the
vector of
malaria
(genus
Anopheles,
known by
their
posture:
mottled
wings and
"tail in the
air") is the
single
biggest
cause of
death among
children
worldwide.
Nearly 3,000
children die
daily from
malaria out
of total
annual
malaria
deaths
worldwide of
1.5 million
people (WHO,
1999). The
World Health
Organization
also
estimates
that out of
the 200
million
people
affected by
malaria
worldwide
each year,
70 million
are children
under the
age of 5. In
Liberia,
about 4,500
Liberian
children die
each year
from
malaria,
writer
Abdoulaye W.
Dukulé
quoted a
Liberian
Health
Ministry
physician in
his article
“Life in
Monrovia”
(The
Perspective,
2001). Of
course, if
we
calculated
the
estimated
annual
malaria
deaths of
4,500
children for
at least 100
years of
Liberia’s
157-year
history, we
would have
lost 450,000
Liberian
children to
malaria,
which is 2.5
times higher
than the
200,000
Liberians
who died
during the
two recent
barbaric
civil wars
in Liberia
between 1989
and 2003.
Perhaps,
this is why
almost every
child
growing up
in Liberia,
especially
in the
Liberian
capital,
Monrovia,
doesn’t only
know the
name
mosquitoes,
the parasite
that causes
malaria, but
also had a
first hand
dose of
experience
with the
dreaded
disease. “In
one
[Liberian]
province, at
least 50
percent of
blood
transfusions
were due to
malaria
induced
anemia,
particularly
in children
five years
and
below…Most
affected by
the malaria
parasite in
Liberia were
children
below five
years and
pregnant
women,
especially
those
carrying
their first
pregnancy….
in one year
there were
1,570
deaths, 186
were due to
malaria,
with 101 of
the malaria
deaths being
children
five years
and below,”
Dr. Benjamin
Vonhn,
Director of
the Malaria
Control
Division at
the Liberian
Health
Ministry
told the Pan
African News
Agency in an
interview on
May 10, 2001
(www.republic-of-liberia.com/vol4_no5.).
Malaria is
an
infectious
disease
whose
symptoms,
according to
the American
Center for
Disease
Control and
Prevention,
consist of
"fever and
flu-like
illness,
including
shaking,
chills,
headache,
muscle aches
and
tiredness,
nausea,
vomiting and
diarrhea.”
The Greek
physician
Hippocrates
referenced
the dreadful
nature of
malaria back
in 400s
B.C., while
malaria was
said to have
contributed
immensely to
the fall s
of the Roman
and the
Greek
Empires (gsbs.utmb.edu/microbook).
The ancient
centers of
civilization
in Iraq,
India,
Egypt, and
China were
also said to
have greatly
suffered
from the
presence of
malaria.
Studies have
also shown
that cities
built in the
1800s near
swampy
areas,
lowlands and
waterways
such as
Monrovia are
susceptible
to malaria,
so do large
urban
centers such
as Rome in
Italy,
Philadelphia
and New York
in the
United
States.
Notwithstanding,
Liberian
costal towns
and cities,
especially
Monrovia,
are a hotbed
for malaria
because of
Liberia’s
tropical
rain forests
and savannah
wetlands,
which
provide a
unique
habitat for
the breeding
of the
malaria-causing
parasites,
mosquitoes.
Mosquitoes
generally
prefer to
rest in a
cool, damp,
dark place
located away
from the
wind.
Natural
resting
stations
include such
places as
chicken
houses,
caves,
hollow
trees,
culverts,
under
bridges, in
stables, and
unscreened
housing, in
addition to
shallow
water pools,
puddles,
hoof prints,
borrow pits,
rice fields
or farms.
The study,
Environmental
Health,
(1971: New
York:
Academic
Press) by P.
Walton
Purdom
presents
mosquitoes’
breeding
habits with
a high
degree of
clarity that
throwaway
containers,
edges of
streams,
swamps,
marshes,
rivers,
ditches,
irrigation
sites,
Mangrove
swamps, and
other
stagnant
waters found
near the
coastline
are
mosquitoes’
breeding
grounds.
In fact, of
the four
known
species of
mosquito
(Plasmodium)
parasites
that cause
malaria
worldwide,
Plasmodium
falciparum,
which causes
the most
fatal and
grave
infections,
is the most
common
species
found in
Liberia.
Plasmodium
falciparum
is not only
transmitted
primarily
during the
rainy season
months in
places such
as Liberia,
but it is
also the
most deadly
form of the
four species
of
malaria-producing
mosquitoes.
About 90
percent of
malaria
deaths and
half of all
clinical
cases of
malaria
result from
this genus
of
mosquitoes.
“Mosquitoes
located in
Africa are
more likely
to bite and
are much
more deadly.
Unlike their
American
counterparts,
these
African
mosquitoes
have longer
life span
and their
bites are
very likely
to be
infectious”
(home.att.net/~africantech/Malaria).
Perhaps,
this was one
reason why
“many
liberated
Liberians of
Black
descendant
who returned
to Africa to
establish an
empire on
the West
Coast of the
Black
Continent
did not live
to see the
nation that
supposed to
have been a
unique gem
in the heart
of West
Africa as
malaria
unfortunately
decimated
half of the
first 88
immigrants (www.earlham.edu/~pols).
A person
infected
with
Plasmodium
falciparum-produced
malaria, if
not treated
promptly and
properly,
may suffer
kidney
failure,
seizures,
mental
confusion,
coma or
death. This
type of
malaria may
also cause
anemia and
jaundice
(yellow
coloring of
the skin and
eyes)
because of
the loss of
red blood
cells.
Plasmodium
vivax, the
second genus
of
mosquitoes
is the most
prevalence
or
distributed
parasite,
living in
both
temperate
and tropical
climates.
The third
type of
mosquito
parasites
can also be
found in
temperate
and tropical
climates but
is less
common than
Plasmodium
vivax, which
“can infect
the liver
and persist
in a dormant
state for
months, or
even up to
several
years, after
exposure”(healthlink.mcw.edu/article).
Plasmodium
ovale, the
fourth type,
is a
relatively
rare
parasite,
confined to
tropical
climates and
found
principally
in eastern
Africa (www.ratsteachmicro.com/Malaria).
All four
kinds of
mosquitoes
can be found
in Liberia
because the
country’s
geological
“floorplan”
consists of
43,000
square miles
of vast
tropical
land, which
is heavily
rain-forested
and receives
between
100-180
inches of
rainfall
annually.
Liberia is
divided into
four major
geographic
terrains and
vegetation
distributions,
including
the coastal
plain, the
belt of
rolling
hills,
mountain
ranges,
plateaus and
the northern
highland.
The
country's
drier
plateau
areas
receive 70
inches of
rain
annually.
The annual
precipitation
along the
coastal
region is
the
heaviest,
ranging from
5080 mm in
the
northeast to
about 2540
mm in the
southeast.
While
temperature
fluctuation
is very
modest, the
dry season
is very
short.
Inland,
precipitation
progressively
decreases
and the
climate is
characterized
by distinct
rainy and
dry seasons.
Over 80% of
the rainfall
takes place
during the
rainy season
when rains
qualls
increase
vertical
mixing of
the
atmosphere.
The rainy
season is
interrupted
between July
and August
by a
pronounced
drop in
precipitation
for about
three weeks.
The average
daily
temperature
is 80
degrees
Fahrenheit
and the
average
humidity
70-90
percent
depending on
the local
conditions.
All these
conditions
lend
themselves
to breeding
mosquitoes
that carry
malaria and
several
other
tropical
diseases (Somah,
1994).
The
symptomic
fever that
characterizes
malaria
inception
occurs when
merozoites
invade and
destroy red
blood cells
in the human
body. As the
destruction
of red blood
cells spills
wastes,
toxins, and
other debris
into the
blood, the
human body
responds by
producing
fever, an
immune
response
that speeds
up other
immune
defenses to
fight the
foreign
invaders in
the blood.
The fever
usually
occurs in
intermittent
episodes,
which begins
with sudden,
violent
chills (or
what we
called in
Liberian the
person
trembling),
followed by
an intense
fever and
then profuse
sweating.
Upon initial
infection
with the
malaria
parasite,
the episodes
of fever
frequently
last 12
hours and
usually
leave an
individual
exhausted
and
bedridden.
Repeated
infections
with the
malaria
parasite can
lead to
severe
anemia, a
decrease in
the
concentration
of red blood
cells in the
bloodstream
because the
malaria
parasite
usually
consumes or
renders
unusable the
proteins and
other vital
components
of the
infected
person’s red
blood cells
www.ratsteachmicro.com/Malaria).
The pattern
of
intermittent
fever and
other
symptoms in
malaria
varies
depending on
which
species of
Plasmodium
is
responsible
for the
infection.
Infections
caused by
Plasmodium
falciparum,
Plasmodium
vivax, and
Plasmodium
ovale
typically
produce
fever
approximately
every 48
hours, or
every first
and third
day (www.buddycom.com/cells/malaria).
Infections
caused by
Plasmodium
malariae
produce
fever every
72 hours, or
every fourth
day. The
hazard,
however,
comes when
the infected
mosquito
bites
another
person, the
mosquito’s
sporozoites
move through
the blood to
the liver of
the infected
person. The
sporozoites
divide
repeatedly
to form
30,000 to
40,000
merozoites
in liver
cells over
the course
of one to
two weeks.
The colony
of
merozoites
departs the
liver to
enter the
bloodstream,
where they
invade red
blood cells.
While in the
blood cells,
the
merozoites
multiply
quickly
thereby
forcing the
red cells to
burst, while
releasing
into the
bloodstream
a new
generation
of
merozoites
that go on
to infect
other red
blood cells
(www.ratsteachmicro.com/Malaria).
In addition
to these
grim
statistics
about
incident of
malaria
deaths and
infestations
amongst
Liberian
children and
mothers, as
well as the
prevalence
of
malaria-producing
mosquitoes
in Liberia,
the
Director-General
of the World
Health
Organization,
Dr. Gro
Harlem
Brundtland,
posits that
out of the
nearly
300-500
million
clinical
cases of
malaria
recorded
worldwide
each year,
90% of these
cases occur
in Africa.
“This is
above all
the disease
of the poor
- killing
the young
and the weak
mostly
living in
rural areas
in Sub
Saharan
Africa… We
share the
concern of
the severe
impediment
malaria is
putting on
the economic
and social
development
of so many
countries.
Some studies
indicate
that malaria
can hold
back income
by as much
as 12%.
Where there
is malaria,
there is
likely to be
severe
strains on
foreign
investments…
Most victims
of malaria
die simply
because they
do not have
access to
health care
close to
their home,
or their
cases are
not
recognized
as malaria
by health
care
professionals.
In addition,
life saving
drugs is
often not
available” (Brundtland,
1999).
Of course,
while the
WHO
director-general’s
prognosis
about the
human and
economic
costs of
malaria
connotes a
universal
problem, the
malaria
problem in
Liberia is
acute
considering
that unlike
other
nations in
Africa and
the world,
Liberia has
no national
project in
place for
control or
eradication
of malaria.
And this is
why a
national
mosquitoes
and
waterborne
diseases
control
campaign is
imperative
for the
health and
wellness of
Liberians,
especially
Liberian
children and
mothers who
are the most
venerable
groups
susceptible
to malaria.
Often times,
malaria
impacts a
child’s
education,
as it
contributes
to a high
rate of
absenteeism
from school.
For example,
while
growing up
in Liberia,
I have seen
young
Liberians
inflicted
with malaria
warming
themselves
around the
fire place
or sitting
in the hot
sun because
they were
physically
and mentally
weak to
study or
walk to
school.
However,
while no
studies
exist to
determine
the exact
net effect
of malaria
on student
absence in
Liberian
schools, the
results of a
Kenyan study
on the
subject
showed that
“as many as
11% of the
school days
in a year
and older
students
miss as much
as 4% of the
school year.
The
elementary
school
students
would be
missing the
equivalent
of almost a
month of
school in
this
country.
Anyone who
has gone
through a
school
system will
know the
detrimental
effect that
this level
of
absenteeism
could have
on your
ability to
graduate” (allafrica.com,
2003).
Malaria not
only places
enormous
burdens and
strains on
the national
healthcare
delivery
systems in
Liberia, and
in other
African
countries,
but also
serves as a
major
indicator of
slow
economic
development,
as it drives
away
international
investors
due to bad
publicity.
For example,
when 51 US
Military
Personnel in
Liberia
showed signs
of malaria,
it became
household
news in the
United
States and
other parts
of the
world. This
kind of bad
publicity is
not good for
the national
economy and
other
socio-economic
developments
programs in
Liberia.
Hence, as
Glean
McKenzie
notes, “The
economic
cost of
malaria is
also high in
countries of
Africa, Asia
and Latin
America
where the
disease is
endemic.”
The World
Health
Organization
estimates
that up to
$12 billion
are lost
annually to
the disease”
(online.middlesex.cc.ma.us),
while Sophie
Pons insists
that about
one million
Africans are
not only
treated for
malaria
every year
at an
estimated
cost of two
billion
dollars, but
the fact
that Africa
now needs $1
billion
annually to
combat
malaria
after years
of foot
dragging in
controlling
the disease
(www.sciencedirect.com).
While we
have yet to
determine
Liberia’s
annual
budget due
to 14 years
of conflict,
if Liberia
were to
spend $200
million
annually on
the
treatment of
malaria-related
diseases,
similar to
Uganda’s
$210 million
malaria
treatment
budget
(allafrica.com),
Liberia
would have
spent 5000
million on
the
treatment of
malaria in
the last 25
years alone.
But this is
a huge
financial
and human
cost
overlays
that Liberia
might not
afford in
the next 50
or more
years. The
14 years of
unprecedented
civil wars
in Liberia
has led to
the
displacement
of an
estimated
600,000
Liberians,
while
according to
Medicins
Sans
Frontiers
(MSF),
recorded
deaths in
Liberia
resulting
from
malaria-related
diseases and
water-borne
diseases
during the
war years
skyrocketed.
MSF said
among
Liberian
children
under five,
deaths were
“eight per
10,000/day,
a figure two
to three
times higher
than that
found in
Liberia
during
peacetime.”
Similarly,
the Incident
Displaced
People
(IDPs)
recorded in
fall of 2002
that, “53
percent of
deaths in
the
under-fives
[in Liberia]
resulting
from these
same four
diseases,
i.e.,
diarrheal,
respiratory
infections,
measles, and
malaria.” In
addition, in
his article,
“Removing
Obstacles to
Effective
Malaria
Treatment in
Emergencies”,
Richard
Allen
laments that
the lack of
“Skilled
health staff
shortages
and
inadequate
national
supplies” in
Liberia,
which he
said
contributed
to Liberians
resorting to
the use of
“CQ
intramuscularly
for the
treatment of
severe
malaria
cases, an
outdated and
dangerous
method in
the face of
rising CQ
resistance”
www.globalhealth.org/conference_2002).
It seems
to me that
Liberians
are caught
in a
catch-22
situation in
which they
must choose
to die from
malaria or
subject
themselves
to unsafe
and outdated
CQ
intramuscularly
treatments
for malaria.
But all hope
is not lost
as long as
Liberian
national
leaders and
health
officials
take
appropriate
steps to
eradicate
malaria in
the same way
the United
States,
China, Cuba,
and other
nations did
when
confronted
with
menacing
effects of
malaria. For
example, in
1935 the
United
States
experienced
an estimated
135,000
cases of
malaria,
including
4,000
deaths, but
the U.S.
government
launched a
vigorous
malaria
eradication
campaign
with a
battery of
trained
health
professionals
that
eventually
paid off.
China, Cuba,
and India
equally
launched
vigorous
malaria
eradication
campaigns
with marked
successes by
combining
political
leadership,
mass
communications,
and both
medical and
grass roots
educational
and training
techniques.
In addition,
India
launched a
series of
national
health
campaigns
that
effectively
succeeded in
eradicating
the
bandicoat
rats that
destroyed
about one
fourth of
the
country's
grain. Of
particular
note was
India’s
reliance on
local
traditional
technique
involving
300 members
of the
28,000-strong
Irula tribe
- a rare
mixture of
patriotism
and
individual
empowerment
- to act as
a true
national
resource
against the
pests. This
effort
helped India
to secure
sufficient
meal to feed
its 900
million
people.
Liberia
therefore
needs to
emulate the
national
campaigns of
the United
States and
other
nations,
especially
India, in
combating
malaria in
Liberia.
Liberia
needs to
reconsider
its reliance
on
chloroquine
as malaria
treatment by
seeking
other viable
treatment
options for
malaria,
including
ATD and
traditional
Liberian
herbs.
Chloroquine
and other
malaria
treatment
drugs are
becoming
less
effective
against
malaria, as
malaria-producing
mosquitoes
are
gradually
fighting
back.
According to
Kenyan
researcher
Kevin Marsh,
malaria is
no longer
responding
to
treatments
that rely on
Chloroquine
and other
popular
drugs. “The
resistance
is spreading
fast, and
science is
running out
of time.
‘Nowadays
you have
resistance
all over the
continent.
We need to
find urgent
solutions.’”
Marsh said
(www.2001pray.org/Malaria.htm).
Like Dr.
Marsh, Dr.
Vonhn of the
Liberian
Health
Ministry
expressed
similar
concern
about the
resistance
of
malaria-producing
mosquitoes
to
treatment.
“… In 1996
studies in
three
locations
showed the
southeastern
port city of
Buchanan
with 38
percent, the
capital city
Monrovia
with 18
percent and
the
northwestern
border town
of Vahun
with five
percent…in
1999, two
other
studies in
the Central
Liberian
city of
Gbarnga and
southeastern
Pleebo
showed 28
percent and
22 percent
resistance
respectively.
Plasmodium
falciparum
resistance
to
chloroquine
up to 24%
has been
reported,”
he said
(www.republic-of-liberia.com/vol4_no5.htm).
What Can We
Do Now
I
indicated
earlier that
hope is not
lost in the
treatment or
eradication
of malaria
as long as
Liberian
national
leaders and
health
officials
summoned the
political
will to act
by launching
vigorous
malaria
eradication
programs in
Liberia.
First, a
battery of
health
inspectors
would help
with
mosquito
surveillance
and control
programs.
The health
teams must
conduct
appropriate
mosquito
surveys and
determine
the right
species of
malaria-producing
parasites
present in
each
political
subdivision
of Liberia,
to determine
their
abundance
and seasonal
variations,
and to
identify the
breeding
habits of
the various
species of
mosquitoes
in and
around the
city areas.
Second, the
Ministry of
Health could
use
biological
control
method to
determine
the various
species of
small fish
that
mosquitoes
feed upon to
create
mosquito
larvae and
pupae and
adult
mosquitoes
that are
eaten by
birds,
dragonflies,
and bats.
The Ministry
of Health
could
develop
pools for
raising
species that
naturally
attack
mosquitoes
and
construct
city parks
that will
attract bats
and birds
that feed on
mosquitoes.
Given this
kind of
Integrated
Mosquito
Control
Management
Plan
(IMCMP), the
high
incidence of
malaria in
Liberia
could be
adequately
controlled
or
eradicated
knowing the
population'
dynamics,
the
reproductive
behavior,
seasonal
cycles, and
resistant
populations
of
falciparum
and malariae
issues. Once
this
information
is known,
the Liberian
government
can begin
sanitation
improvement
measures,
habitat
alteration,
cultural
practices,
reproduction
of harborage
and
mosquitoes
proofing.
Third,
our nation
should
consider the
safe
application
of DDT,
which is 90
percent
effective in
destroying
mosquitoes
and it is
cost-effective
due to its
90-year
durability.
Swiss
chemist Paul
Hermann
Muller
invented DDT
in 1937 and
it soon
emerged as
“miracle
chemical” in
the
treatment of
–mosquitoes,
by helping
to eradicate
malaria in
Western
Europe and
the North
America.
However, DDT
use in
Africa felt
apart in
1962 when
environmentalist
Rachel
Carson
released her
book,
"Silent
Spring,"
which
dismissed
DDT as a
poison for
the
environment
rather than
a miracle
treatment
for malaria.
DDT was
labeled as
the world’s
most toxic
substance
and
eventually
banned,
though DDT
is not known
to have
killed
anyone.
Other
research
scientists
eventfully
questioned
Carson’s
conclusion
and DDT was
restored as
a treatment
against
malaria-producing
mosquitoes.
In “Malaria
Remains Real
Tyrant”
visiting
professor
Jason Lott
of Oxford
University
writes,
“Recent
studies have
shown that
DDT is
actually
less toxic
than aspirin
for humans,
and the
minimal
amount
needed for
protective
indoor
spraying
will likely
have little,
if any,
environmental
impact.
DDT's
effectiveness
was proven
again in
2000, when
South Africa
broke rank
with
environmental
standards
and
implemented
indoor
residual
spraying of
DDT to end a
malaria
scare along
its border
with
Mozambique”
(www.humanbeams.com).
“A blight
that has
been all but
eliminated
in the West,
malaria
still claims
between one
million and
two million
lives every
year in the
underdeveloped
world. ...
The bigger
problem is
the
politicized
international
health
agencies
that
discourage
the
employment
of all
available
tools of
prevention
--
specifically
insecticides
containing
DDT that is
anathema to
environmentalists,"
The Wall
Street
Journal
noted in a
29 December
2004
edition. In
addition,
“Roll Back
Malaria
should
reconsider
the role DDT
can play in
the fight
against
malaria. For
the most
part, “Roll
Back Malaria
of 1998” has
not met its
goals. In
his article,
“Day-After
Day After
Day After
Day” by Dr.
Roger Bate,
he argued
that: “The
WHO, World
Bank, the US
aid agency,
USAid, and
Unicef
launched
Roll Back
Malaria in
1998. Their
aim was to
reduce
malaria
deaths by
2010. So far
malaria
deaths have
risen 12 %”
(www.fightingmalaria.org/article).
If saving as
many lives
as possible
is what
truly
matters,
then
prevention
protocols
emphasizing
the use of
ITNs and DDT
must be
adopted and
implemented
across the
region.
Vague
appeals to
environmental
integrity
and
unfounded
warnings of
human harm
do not
justify the
needless
deaths of so
many,
especially
when a
solution is
near at
hand,” the
U.S.-based
Roll Back
Malaria
Campaign
said in an
article (www.humanbeams.com).
Traditional
Treatment
In addition
to the
Integrated
Mosquitoes
Control
Management
Plan (IMCMP)
suggested
earlier, DDR
and
traditional
Liberian
herbs could
be used in
the control
of malaria
in Liberia.
I have
already
discussed
the success
of DDT in
South
Africa, so I
would
suggest that
Liberian
health
authorities
must engage
in a
national
campaign to
learn about
all the
herbs our
people knew
and used to
treat
malaria that
we have
abandoned to
crave for
western
medicine.
Instead of
cutting down
the forest,
we must
leave the
trees where
they are and
invite
pharmaceutical
companies to
test these
herbal
remedies as
other
nations are
doing. For
example,
China for
centuries
have a plant
called the
"sweet
wormwood"
that work
effectively
against
malaria.
Though it is
not known in
the West,
the WHO just
learned
about the
Chinese herb
and is now
recommending
its use of
multi-drug
combinations
based on
artemisinin
after
researchers
concluded
that Africa
needs the
sweet
wormwood to
treat
malaria. The
Chinese
wormwood is
now being
mass-produced
and sold at
affordable
prices to
the African
people. I
believe that
we have a
Liberian
“sweet
wormwood" in
our
backyards,
and we need
to exploit
it. For
example, a
local herb
popular
among the
Bassa people
for treating
malaria is
the
“deede-chu,”
while other
popular
Liberian
traditional
herbs for
treating
malaria or
fever
includes the
“jologbo”.
These are
popular
herbs found
among the
Bassa people
of Liberia,
but efforts
should be
made to find
and
catalogue
all herbal
medicines
used by
traditional
Liberia in
the war
against
malaria and
other
illnesses in
Liberia. In
the United
States and
other
developed
traditions,
herbal
medicines
use are on
the rise
under such
names as
“herbal
supplements”
or
“alternative
medicine,”
and Liberia
as a
developing
country
cannot
afford to
overlook its
traditional
herbal
medicines
reserves.
Any new
governments
in Liberia
need to
encourage
the
cataloguing
of
traditional
herbal
medicines
for purposes
of
refinement
for use by
the general
public. And
this is why
previous
efforts by
Isaac Smith,
RN at TB
Hospital and
biologist
Dr. Dickson
Redd of the
University
of Liberia
and his
students in
cataloging
some herbal
plants in
Liberia must
be
resurrected
and expanded
as part of a
national
effort.
Nevertheless,
the success
of any
national
health
campaign
would depend
on two major
factors—education
and
cooperation,
which have
been two of
Liberia's
greatest
challenges.
Even now, if
Liberian
health
authorities
were able to
mobilize the
Liberian
people to
embrace a
malaria
eradication
campaign
that
combined
cultural and
individual
empowerment
similar to
the Indian
program, it
might still
not be
possible to
reach
Liberians
living
outside the
city centers
in each
political
subdivision
of Liberia.
So the first
step is to
ensure that
the national
radio
stations
reach every
corner of
Liberia if
we want the
full
participation
of the
Liberian
people. In
fact, once
we succeed
in a
vigorous
malaria
eradication
campaign on
our own, the
rest of the
world will
see an
opportunity
for
investments
in Liberia.
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